Document Type : Research Article

Authors

• Faezeh Rahimi ¹
• Kolsoum Ghazanfari ²

¹ M.A in Ancient History, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran.

² Assistant professor of Ancient History, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Food and its types in the Achaemenid Empire are among the topics related to the social history of this period. Meat and its types are among the foods consumed in the ancient world. Remaining documents from the Achaemenid era show its prevalence in the court and among the people. What kind of meat consumed in the Achaemenid period is the main issue of present paper, which is considered important in clarifying issues related to social, economic, cultural and political life of this period? We used various sources such as Persepolis tablets, inscriptions, written texts, etc. our investigation shows that the geographical conditions of the Achaemenid Empire were such that access to various types of meat was possible through hunting or breeding animals and birds. The economic situation of the people living in the Achaemenid Empire, which was due to their social status or profession, played a decisive role in how and to what extent this type of food was available. In addition, the available evidence, especially the data from the Persepolis tablets, indicate meat and its types as an important components of the food basket of the court and courtiers.

Keywords

• Achaemenid court
• beasts
• sheep
• birds
• ducks

Main Subjects

• Social history

Extended Abstract

 Meat Consumption and Its types in the Achaemenid Period

Life's continuation is dependent on nutrition, and humans are primarily driven by the urge to satisfy this basic need. Information about a peoples' consumption, food types, food acquisition methods, norms, and tastes, as constituent elements of everyday life, is discussed under the umbrella of social history. This discipline looks into different types of social relations in the historical context. Communication between people makes up a type of social relation, which itself is made up of different components and elements shaping the daily life of people throughout historical ages. This aspect of Iran's social history has received little attention so far. Citation-based research is a suitable method in this field to deepen our historical awareness. This study investigated the consumption of different types of meat in the Achaemenid Empire using documentary sources and tried to shed light on its importance in the culinary culture of the time. This was a descriptive-analytical study and the data was collected through through desk study and review of various resources including ancient inscriptions, documents  and classical Greek historiographies.

This research also took advantage of works concerning food in the Achaemenid court. In her book "So Says King Darius" (Es kündet Dareios der König), Heidemarie Koch examined the rations received by workers in Persepolis by listing different job titles and their rations, which included meat. Nevertheless, her work is not dedicated to the types of meat and its consumption, and such information is provided only when reviewing the content of the tablets. In his article “The King’s Dinner", D. Lewis (1987) analyzes the list presented by Polyaenus and touches upon the food policies and programs of the Achaemenid court. He believes that the court's food was prepared carefully and thriftily. One of the mentioned items in the list is meat, however, the study does not delve into its types and consumption beyond references to the king's diet. In an article titled “Travel Provisions in Babylonia in the First Millennium B.C.”, Bojana Jankovic studied the travel rations of Babylonian workers in the same period as the Achaemenid dynasty. By comparing worker and employer rations and their manner of distribution, she argues that the amount of rations was in such a way that they could address their other needs by selling the surplus amounts. Her work's emphasis is on travel provisions in Babylon, which included meat, and does not provide any information on meat types and consumption in other times and territories of the empire. Wouter Henkelman's article "Consumed before the King: the Table of Darius, that of Irdabama and Irtaštuna, and that of his Satrap, Karkiš" explores the nutritional system of the Achaemenid court. Using Persepolis fortification archive tablets, he argues that contrary to reports by classical historians, the Achaemenid court not only was not luxurious but also the meals were prepared according to a schedule and in specific amounts to feed a group of people amounting to fifteen thousand. In another article titled: “Parnakka’s Feast: Šip in Parsa and Elam”, he examines several Achaemenid religious ceremonies. The provided documents show that the Achaemenid court used animal sacrifice in its ceremonies, and the surplus meat was distributed among the workers based in Persepolis. The article generally examines nutrition in the Achaemenid court, including meat, but does not focus on the types of meat and other topics addressed in the present study. In his book "King and Court in Ancient Persia", Llewellyn-Jones investigated the internal structure and customs of the Achaemenid court as well as the use of special foods such as meat in rituals. This work is focused on food and not specifically meat consumption. He maintained that such customs were a ritualized form of the Achaemenid court's ideology.

The surviving evidence and documents concerning meat consumption and its types in the Achaemenid period are limited, scattered, and sometimes ambiguous and mostly concerned with the Achaemenid court. Nevertheless, their analysis yields invaluable information. The research findings suggest that meat was one of the most important foodstuffs during this era, which was sourced from various types of animals. White and red meat for culinary applications was procured through hunting and farming. Red meat was mostly obtained from domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle. The next source of red meat was animals such as deer, gazelle, and zebra, which either lived in the wild or were kept on royal hunting grounds. Evidence also shows that duck, goose, and doves/pigeons were among birds whose meat was consumed during this era. Other sources of white meat included ostrich, partridge, quail, bustard, and fish, which were acquired either through farming or hunting. Interestingly, white meat (birds) types in the available sources are generally mentioned in connection with the court and courtiers, which demonstrates its importance for this class.